How to crack a computer password

Password Cracking Goals, Techniques and Relative Merits and Cracking Times of Different Techniques

Password crackers are primarily after (root or administrative account passwords) when they crack passwords. Their tools are password cracking programs that use password dictionaries. The feature lists of common password cracking programs or tools are discussed. Also listed are the suggested standard dictionary transformations for Crack, the best known tool for cracking passwords. How long it takes to crack passwords and the primary factors affecting password cracking times are covered. Why password dictionary attacks dramatically lower brute force password cracking times is discussed.

•Goals of the Cracker
•Password Cracking Programs’ Feature List
•Password Cracking Program Examples
•How Long Does It Take to Crack Passwords?
•Table of Times to Crack Passwords
•Brute Force, Dictionary Comparison
Goals of the Cracker
The goal of the cracker is to obtain the root account password on UNIX systems and administrator accounts on Windows NT and 2000 systems. With some UNIX security setups, the passwords for users in the wheel, security, or root group may have significant value. Since the cracker presumably already has some degree of access to the target machine (cracking can only be performed when the attacker already possess the password hashes), it’s not likely that unprivileged accounts will be of much value to the intruder but the techniques for obtaining passwords are the same regardless of the target account.

The intruder is likely to need only one password for an account with suitable privileges. Additional accounts may be of some value in preserving access but not likely to make much practical difference in obtaining access to the system at the desired privilege level.

The cracking times table shows that with the computing power currently available and for the next several years, eight character passwords (the traditional length limit on UNIX systems) can be chosen that will not be cracked by brute force techniques but still most passwords are poorly chosen and fit some predictable characteristics.

Since brute force is not likely to identify any but the weakest passwords, the intruder’s best chance is to identify techniques that are computationally efficient compared to brute force techniques and have a reasonable chance of cracking some of the passwords in the collection of accounts and password hashes in their possession. By applying what is known about how users select passwords, an intruder can tremendously increase the odds in their favor of finding passwords. With the right techniques, some poor passwords can be cracked in under a second.
Cracking Tool’s Feature List

The fundamental flaw in the password system is the tendency of most people to select names and words that can be found in dictionaries as their passwords. Often such names or words are modified by applying predictable changes to them. This may be in response to system requirements to vary the kinds of characters included in a password.

The alternative to brute force is a dictionary attack. At its simplest this means treating each word in a dictionary (electronic list) as a password and encrypting it and then comparing the resulting hashes to the hashes in the password file being cracked. If the hashes match, the password is known. It’s imperative to understand that this is only the most rudimentary form of dictionary attack and that the real power of dictionary attacks come from understanding the ways in which most people vary names and dictionary words when attempting to create a password. By applying all the common transformations to every word in the electronic list and encrypting each result the number tested passwords multiplies rapidly. Every “clever” way of manipulating words to hide their origin is know to the cracking tools.

To understand what make weak and strong passwords, it’s necessary to understand what cracking tools can and can’t do. L0phtCrack is the leading Windows cracking tool. The easy to use L0phtCrack with its GUI interface is rather limited compared to Crack 5 and John the Ripper in its dictionary transformation capabilities. L0phtCrack can append a user specified number of characters to the end of the dictionary words. It works through the entire character set and appends every combination to each dictionary word; this includes all the letter sequences as well as digits and symbols. L0phtCrack takes less than a second to process the default dictionary of nearly 30,000 words and about a minute and a half to process two additional characters in conjunction with the 30,000 word list (on a PIII 500).

Both Crack 5 and John the Ripper allow the user to define rule sets that control the transformations that are applied to the input dictionaries (word lists). Below are most of the transformations that John the Ripper can perform. Crack has the same capabilities.

* Append or prepend defined characters to a word.
* Reverse a word.
* Duplicate a word.
* Mirror a word, i.e. append the reversed word.
* Rotate a word either left or right, i.e. move the first letter to the end or the last letter to the front.
* Upper case a word.
* Lower case a word.
* Make only the first letter a capital.
* Male all but the first letter a capital.
* Toggle the case of all characters.
* Toggle the case of a character at a set position.
* Minumum and maximum word lengths can be set or long words can be truncated at a set length.
* Suffixes (s, ed, ing) may be added to words.
* First, last or any specific character may be deleted.
* Characters can be replaced at a set location.
* Characters can be inserted at a set location.
* “Shift” the case, i.e. substitute the other character on the same key, e.g. ‘a’ and ‘A’ or ‘5′ and ‘%’.
* Shift the characters left or right by keyboard position (so an ’s’ becomes an ‘a’ or ‘d’).
* Replace all of one character with another.
* Replace all characters of a class (for example vowels, letters, non letters, digits) with a specific character.
* Remove all occurrences of any character from a word.
* Remove all characters of a class from a word.
* Reject a word if it contains or doesn’t contain a character, or characters from a class.
* Reject a word if the first, last or set character is or is not a specific character or from a class.
* Reject a word unless it contains at least so many of a character or characters from a class.

In the forgoing a class might be any of the following: a letter, a vowel, a consonant, an upper case letter, a lower case letter, a digit, a symbol or punctuation, a non letter (digits, symbols and punctuation), alphanumeric or one of several others. The length limits and reject options don’t increase the possibilities but allow the cracker to skip “words” where a particular type of transformation may not make much sense; this should improve the cracking tool efficiency.
Cracking Tool Examples

The words that the transformations operate on can be either from a standard dictionary (word list, one per line) or from the user name and words (or names) extracted from the /etc/passwd GECOS field. Crack appears to be limited to words from dictionaries. Rules can be combined to perform multiple transformations on the words. Below is the list of actual transformations suggested in the Crack 5 documentation:

* Lower case pure alpha words.
* Lower case and pluralize alpha words.
* Append digits and punctuation to all pure alpha words.
* Lower case and reverse pure alpha words.
* Lower case and mirror pure alpha words.
* Capitalize all alphanumeric words, i.e. first letter only.
* Capitalize all alphanumeric words and add a variety of common punctuation so ‘cats’ becomes Cats! Cats? Cats. Cats, Cats- etc.
* Upper case all alphanumeric words.
* Remove vowels from pure alpha words.
* Remove white space and punctuation from those words that have it.
* Duplicate short words.
* Perform most of the similar looking character substitutions identified in the list of dont’s.
* Lower case and prepend digits (all words).
* Capitalize then reverse alphanumeric words.
* Reverse then capitalize words.
* Upper case words adding common punctuation and swapping zero for O.
* Upper case then duplicate, reverse and mirror words.

A number of the preceding transformations had length limitations which have been omitted for simplicity.
How Long Does It Take to Crack Passwords?

Conceptually the easiest way to crack passwords is to generate character sequences working through all possible 1 character passwords, then two character, then three character, etc. This is the brute force attack previously mentioned. It could start at any specific length password. Theoretically any possible password can be found this way but generally there is not sufficient computing power available to successfully accomplish this. A number of factors deteremine how long a brute force attack will take. Some may be under a system administrators control and others are not.

One factor is the amount of computing power available to solve the problem. Computing power increases continually; Moore’s law anticipated a doubling of processing power every 18 months and this has so far been a close approximation to reality. This works out to about a 100 times increase each decade. Today a computer is likely to have approximately a million times the computing power available when the first UNIX was developed.

Password cracking lends itself well to parallel processing on multiple machines with near linear gains as more machines are applied to the problem. Someone with access to many machines during off-hours at a company or educational institution may be able to apply lots of computing power. Computers with a wide range of speeds may be available. Thus the amount of computing power available for password cracking continually rises but the amount available to a single cracker or group of crackers may vary by orders of magnitude at any specific point in time.

Another factor is the algorithm used to encrypt the password. Generally this is set by the operating system but some such as Linux and OpenBSD allow the administrator to select from different types. On OpenBSD the administrator can control loop counts for some of the options. Changing the encryption method and how many times it is applied, can greatly increase the time it takes to compute a password hash. Generally, the longer it takes to compute the hash when the password is created, the longer it will take when trying to crack the password. The standard UNIX encryption method has been changed to make it slower more than once. On the other hand, some algorithms have multiple implementations and those cracking passwords have created variants that produce the same results but run as much as 100 times faster than the version that originally encrypts the password2.

Probably the most important factor in brute force cracking of passwords is how many passwords need to be examined to cover all possible passwords. Two factors determine this. They are the length of the password and the number of characters in the character set from which the passwords are formed. The number of possible passwords is the number of characters in the character set raised to the power represented by the password length. For example, the number of possible three character passwords formed by 26 letters is 26 cubed.

The table below is calculated by assuming 100,000 encryption operations per second; this is a plausible number for a desktop PC today. In “Password Cracking Using Focused Dictionaries”1, Paul Bobby refers to 48000 “password combinations per second” on a “P2-400Mhz computer”. In “UNIX Password Security - Ten Years Later”2, Feldmeier and Karn refer to a “top speed of 1092.8 crypts per second on a Sun SPARCStation.” in 1989. Applying Moores law we should get between 100,000 and 200,000 crypts per second on a high end workstations eleven years later. Using L0phtCrack5, I’ve seen about 1.2 million “Tries/sec” using only alphanumeric characters and about nine hundred thousand “Tries/sec” using the full 95 character, printable ASCII character set, on a PIII 500. I believe the L0phtCrack number is at least in part a result of the weaker encryption used by NT as discussed on another page.

Password lengths from 3 to 12 are shown. The numbers at the top, 26 - 94, indicate the number of characters from which the passwords are formed. 26 is the number of lower case letters, 36 is letters and digits, 52 is mixed case letters, 68 is single case letters with digits, symbols and punctuation, and 94 is all the displayable ASCII characters including mixed case letters. The times shown are the times to process the entire set of passwords thus the average time to crack passwords would be one half the listed times.

26 36 52
3 0.18 seconds 0.47 seconds 1.41 seconds
4 4.57 seconds 16.8 seconds 1.22 minutes
5 1.98 minutes 10.1 minutes 1.06 hours
6 51.5 minutes 6.05 hours 13.7 days
7 22.3 hours 9.07 days 3.91 months
8 24.2 days 10.7 months 17.0 years
9 1.72 years 32.2 years 8.82 centuries
10 44.8 years 1.16 millennia 45.8 millennia
11 11.6 centuries 41.7 millennia 2,384 millennia
12 30.3 millennia 1,503 millennia 123,946 millennia

68 94
3 3.14 seconds 8.3 seconds
4 3.56 minutes 13.0 minutes
5 4.04 hours 20.4 hours
6 2.26 months 2.63 months
7 2.13 years 20.6 years
8 1.45 centuries 1.93 millennia
9 9.86 millennia 182 millennia
10 670 millennia 17,079 millennia
11 45,582 millennia 1,605,461 millennia
12 3,099,562 millennia 150,913,342 millennia

Even if a cracker has a thousand times more power available than assumed, e.g., 100,000 is significantly low and the crackers has lot of fast computers or a supercomputer, it’s very easy to find passwords that can’t easily be cracked. Eight character passwords using the entire character set will do, as it will take nearly two years to work through all possible passwords. Depending on the password and the brute force sequence, some passwords might fall quickly. For example if passwords were generated in the order of ASCII collating sequence, the poor password !!!111Aa might be found rather quickly.

The time to process a cracking dictionary is determined in the same manner. The total number of passwords to be tried, which is a product of the number of words in the dictionary times the number of transformations per word, is divided by the rate it takes to encrypt passwords. Complex rule sets may impose an additional significant overhead. On today’s computers, small dictionaries (less than 100,000) with a few transformations will complete in a few seconds. The total number of passwords with large dictionaries and many transformations or huge dictionaries will be huge and the processing time correspondingly large.
Brute Force, Dictionary Comparison

As brute force is the only alternative to dictionary based password cracking it’s worth taking a close look the table above. Look at how long it should take to crack eight character passwords drawing from the 95 typeable characters. One simple statement should put this in perspective. Not including NT systems, that have a seriously flawed password storage method
It is highly unlikely that any cracker has ever gotten even a single password, eight characters or longer, randomly created from the entire 95 printable ASCII character set.

Randomness does have it’s surprises. If numbers are randomly selected from a billion number sequence, there is a one in a billion chance that the first number will be drawn on the first try. Very unlikely but still possible. To have a 1% chance of cracking a specific random, 8 character password from the full character set takes about 20 years of computing, at 100,000 passwords per second.

An obscure word in the Afrikaans language, mirrored and all uppercased except the first letter is more likely to be used as a password than any single random character sequence of similar length. Further, where the single random sequence cannot be reliably found by existing technology today, the Afrikaans derived password surely can; it’s simply a matter of the cracker having and choosing to apply sufficient resources

Any word and all the mechanical transformations that can be described to change that word into something else is a subset of all possible combinations of the same characters. As the length of the word increases, the standard transformations become an ever smaller subset of the possible permutations. For a word of meaningful length, say more than 5 characters, the word and its transformations is an infinitesimal subset of all possible combinations of the same number of all characters. In other words, the longer the passwords to be cracked, the larger the advantage of a dictionary based attack will be compared to a brute force attack. Here “dictionary based attack” is understood to include custom programmed dictionaries as described in subsequent pages in this section.


source:from:\ Geodsoft

Reason why Windows crashes is hardware conflict

Fatal error: the system has become unstable or is busy," it says. "Enter to return to Windows or press Control-Alt-Delete to restart your computer. If you do this you will lose any unsaved information in all open applications."

You have just been struck by the Blue Screen of Death. Anyone who uses Mcft Windows will be familiar with this. What can you do? More importantly, how can you prevent it happening?

1 Hardware conflict

The number one reason why Windows crashes is hardware conflict. Each hardware device communicates to other devices through an interrupt request channel (IRQ). These are supposed to be unique for each device.

For example, a printer usually connects internally on IRQ 7. The keyboard usually uses IRQ 1 and the floppy disk drive IRQ 6. Each device will try to hog a single IRQ for itself.

If there are a lot of devices, or if they are not installed properly, two of them may end up sharing the same IRQ number. When the user tries to use both devices at the same time, a crash can happen. The way to check if your computer has a hardware conflict is through the following route:

* Start-Settings-Control Panel-System-Device Manager.

Often if a device has a problem a yellow '!' appears next to its description in the Device Manager. Highlight Computer (in the Device Manager) and press Properties to see the IRQ numbers used by your computer. If the IRQ number appears twice, two devices may be using it.

Sometimes a device might share an IRQ with something described as 'IRQ holder for PCI steering'. This can be ignored. The best way to fix this problem is to remove the problem device and reinstall it.

Sometimes you may have to find more recent drivers on the internet to make the device function properly. A good resource is www.driverguide.com

. If the device is a soundcard, or a modem, it can often be fixed by moving it to a different slot on the motherboard (be careful about opening your computer, as you may void the warranty).

When working inside a computer you should switch it off, unplug the mains lead and touch an unpainted metal surface to discharge any static electricity.

To be fair to Mcft, the problem with IRQ numbers is not of its making. It is a legacy problem going back to the first PC designs using the IBM 8086 chip. Initially there were only eight IRQs. Today there are 16 IRQs in a PC. It is easy to run out of them. There are plans to increase the number of IRQs in future designs.

2 Bad Ram

Ram (random-access memory) problems might bring on the blue screen of death with a message saying Fatal Exception Error. A fatal error indicates a serious hardware problem. Sometimes it may mean a part is damaged and will need replacing.

But a fatal error caused by Ram might be caused by a mismatch of chips. For example, mixing 70-nanosecond (70ns) Ram with 60ns Ram will usually force the computer to run all the Ram at the slower speed. This will often crash the machine if the Ram is overworked.

One way around this problem is to enter the BIOS settings and increase the wait state of the Ram. This can make it more stable. Another way to troubleshoot a suspected Ram problem is to rearrange the Ram chips on the motherboard, or take some of them out. Then try to repeat the circumstances that caused the crash. When handling Ram try not to touch the gold connections, as they can be easily damaged.

Parity error messages also refer to Ram. Modern Ram chips are either parity (ECC) or non parity (non-ECC). It is best not to mix the two types, as this can be a cause of trouble.

EMM386 error messages refer to memory problems but may not be connected to bad Ram. This may be due to free memory problems often linked to old Dos-based programmes.

3 BIOS settings

Every motherboard is supplied with a range of chipset settings that are decided in the factory. A common way to access these settings is to press the F2 or delete button during the first few seconds of a boot-up.

Once inside the BIOS, great care should be taken. It is a good idea to write down on a piece of paper all the settings that appear on the screen. That way, if you change something and the computer becomes more unstable, you will know what settings to revert to.

A common BIOS error concerns the CAS latency. This refers to the Ram. Older EDO (extended data out) Ram has a CAS latency of 3. Newer SDRam has a CAS latency of 2. Setting the wrong figure can cause the Ram to lock up and freeze the computer's display.

Mcft Windows is better at allocating IRQ numbers than any BIOS. If possible set the IRQ numbers to Auto in the BIOS. This will allow Windows to allocate the IRQ numbers (make sure the BIOS setting for Plug and Play OS is switched to 'yes' to allow Windows to do this.).

4 Hard disk drives

After a few weeks, the information on a hard disk drive starts to become piecemeal or fragmented. It is a good idea to defragment the hard disk every week or so, to prevent the disk from causing a screen freeze. Go to

* Start-Programs-Accessories-System Tools-Disk Defragmenter

This will start the procedure. You will be unable to write data to the hard drive (to save it) while the disk is defragmenting, so it is a good idea to schedule the procedure for a period of inactivity using the Task Scheduler.

The Task Scheduler should be one of the small icons on the bottom right of the Windows opening page (the desktop).

Some lockups and screen freezes caused by hard disk problems can be solved by reducing the read-ahead optimisation. This can be adjusted by going to

* Start-Settings-Control Panel-System Icon-Performance-File System-Hard Disk.

Hard disks will slow down and crash if they are too full. Do some housekeeping on your hard drive every few months and free some space on it. Open the Windows folder on the C drive and find the Temporary Internet Files folder. Deleting the contents (not the folder) can free a lot of space.

Empty the Recycle Bin every week to free more space. Hard disk drives should be scanned every week for errors or bad sectors. Go to

* Start-Programs-Accessories-System Tools-ScanDisk

Otherwise assign the Task Scheduler to perform this operation at night when the computer is not in use.

5 Fatal OE exceptions and VXD errors

Fatal OE exception errors and VXD errors are often caused by video card problems.

These can often be resolved easily by reducing the resolution of the video display. Go to

* Start-Settings-Control Panel-Display-Settings

Here you should slide the screen area bar to the left. Take a look at the colour settings on the left of that window. For most desktops, high colour 16-bit depth is adequate.

If the screen freezes or you experience system lockups it might be due to the video card. Make sure it does not have a hardware conflict. Go to

* Start-Settings-Control Panel-System-Device Manager

Here, select the + beside Display Adapter. A line of text describing your video card should appear. Select it (make it blue) and press properties. Then select Resources and select each line in the window. Look for a message that says No Conflicts.

If you have video card hardware conflict, you will see it here. Be careful at this point and make a note of everything you do in case you make things worse.

The way to resolve a hardware conflict is to uncheck the Use Automatic Settings box and hit the Change Settings button. You are searching for a setting that will display a No Conflicts message.

Another useful way to resolve video problems is to go to

* Start-Settings-Control Panel-System-Performance-Graphics

Here you should move the Hardware Acceleration slider to the left. As ever, the most common cause of problems relating to graphics cards is old or faulty drivers (a driver is a small piece of software used by a computer to communicate with a device).

Look up your video card's manufacturer on the internet and search for the most recent drivers for it.

6 Viruses

Often the first sign of a virus infection is instability. Some viruses erase the boot sector of a hard drive, making it impossible to start. This is why it is a good idea to create a Windows start-up disk. Go to

Start-Settings-Control Panel-Add/Remove Programs

Here, look for the Start Up Disk tab. Virus protection requires constant vigilance.

A virus scanner requires a list of virus signatures in order to be able to identify viruses. These signatures are stored in a DAT file. DAT files should be updated weekly from the website of your antivirus software manufacturer.

7 Printers

The action of sending a document to print creates a bigger file, often called a postscript file.

Printers have only a small amount of memory, called a buffer. This can be easily overloaded. Printing a document also uses a considerable amount of CPU power. This will also slow down the computer's performance.

If the printer is trying to print unusual characters, these might not be recognised, and can crash the computer. Sometimes printers will not recover from a crash because of confusion in the buffer. A good way to clear the buffer is to unplug the printer for ten seconds. Booting up from a powerless state, also called a cold boot, will restore the printer's default settings and you may be able to carry on.

8 Software

A common cause of computer crash is faulty or badly-installed software. Often the problem can be cured by uninstalling the software and then reinstalling it. Use Norton Uninstall or Uninstall Shield to remove an application from your system properly. This will also remove references to the programme in the System Registry and leaves the way clear for a completely fresh copy.

The System Registry can be corrupted by old references to obsolete software that you thought was uninstalled. Use Reg Cleaner by Jouni Vuorio to clean up the System Registry and remove obsolete entries. It works on Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows 98 SE (Second Edition), Windows Millennium Edition (ME), NT4 and Windows 2000.

Read the instructions and use it carefully so you don't do permanent damage to the Registry. If the Registry is damaged you will have to reinstall your operating system. Reg Cleaner can be obtained from www.jv16.org

Often a Windows problem can be resolved by entering Safe Mode. This can be done during start-up. When you see the message "Starting Windows" press F4. This should take you into Safe Mode.

Safe Mode loads a minimum of drivers. It allows you to find and fix problems that prevent Windows from loading properly.

Sometimes installing Windows is difficult because of unsuitable BIOS settings. If you keep getting SUWIN error messages (Windows setup) during the Windows installation, then try entering the BIOS and disabling the CPU internal cache. Try to disable the Level 2 (L2) cache if that doesn't work.

Remember to restore all the BIOS settings back to their former settings following installation.

9 Overheating

Central processing units (CPUs) are usually equipped with fans to keep them cool. If the fan fails or if the CPU gets old it may start to overheat and generate a particular kind of error called a kernel error. This is a common problem in chips that have been overclocked to operate at higher speeds than they are supposed to.

One remedy is to get a bigger better fan and install it on top of the CPU.

CPU problems can often be fixed by disabling the CPU internal cache in the BIOS. This will make the machine run more slowly, but it should also be more stable.

10 Power supply problems

With all the new construction going on around the country the steady supply of electricity has become disrupted. A power surge or spike can crash a computer as easily as a power cut.

If this has become a nuisance for you then consider buying a uninterrupted power supply (UPS). This will give you a clean power supply when there is electricity, and it will give you a few minutes to perform a controlled shutdown in case of a power cut.

It is a good investment if your data are critical, because a power cut will cause any unsaved data to be lost.

Keyboard shortcuts for Windows

Windows system key combinations
• F1: Help
• CTRL+ESC: Open Start menu
• ALT+TAB: Switch between open programs
• ALT+F4: Quit program
• SHIFT+DELETE: Delete item permanently


Windows program key combinations
• CTRL+C: Copy
• CTRL+X: Cut
• CTRL+V: Paste
• CTRL+Z: Undo
• CTRL+B: Bold
• CTRL+U: Underline
• CTRL+I: Italic



Mouse click/keyboard modifier combinations for shell objects
• SHIFT+right click: Displays a shortcut menu containing alternative commands
• SHIFT+double click: Runs the alternate default command (the second item on the menu)
• ALT+double click: Displays properties
• SHIFT+DELETE: Deletes an item immediately without placing it in the Recycle Bin


General keyboard-only commands
• F1: Starts Windows Help
• F10: Activates menu bar options
• SHIFT+F10 Opens a shortcut menu for the selected item (this is the same as right-clicking an object
• CTRL+ESC: Opens the Start menu (use the ARROW keys to select an item)
• CTRL+ESC or ESC: Selects the Start button (press TAB to select the taskbar, or press SHIFT+F10 for a context menu)
• ALT+DOWN ARROW: Opens a drop-down list box
• ALT+TAB: Switch to another running program (hold down the ALT key and then press the TAB key to view the task-switching window)
• SHIFT: Press and hold down the SHIFT key while you insert a CD-ROM to bypass the automatic-run feature
• ALT+SPACE: Displays the main window's System menu (from the System menu, you can restore, move, resize, minimize, maximize, or close the window)
• ALT+- (ALT+hyphen): Displays the Multiple Document Interface (MDI) child window's System menu (from the MDI child window's System menu, you can restore, move, resize, minimize, maximize, or close the child window)
• CTRL+TAB: Switch to the next child window of a Multiple Document Interface (MDI) program
• ALT+underlined letter in menu: Opens the menu
• ALT+F4: Closes the current window
• CTRL+F4: Closes the current Multiple Document Interface (MDI) window
• ALT+F6: Switch between multiple windows in the same program (for example, when the Notepad Find dialog box is displayed, ALT+F6 switches between the Find dialog box and the main Notepad window)


Shell objects and general folder/Windows Explorer shortcuts
For a selected object: • F2: Rename object
• F3: Find all files
• CTRL+X: Cut
• CTRL+C: Copy
• CTRL+V: Paste
• SHIFT+DELETE: Delete selection immediately, without moving the item to the Recycle Bin
• ALT+ENTER: Open the properties for the selected object

To copy a file
Press and hold down the CTRL key while you drag the file to another folder.
To create a shortcut
Press and hold down CTRL+SHIFT while you drag a file to the desktop or a folder.
Back to the top

General folder/shortcut control
• F4: Selects the Go To A Different Folder box and moves down the entries in the box (if the toolbar is active in Windows Explorer)
• F5: Refreshes the current window.
• F6: Moves among panes in Windows Explorer
• CTRL+G: Opens the Go To Folder tool (in Windows 95 Windows Explorer only)
• CTRL+Z: Undo the last command
• CTRL+A: Select all the items in the current window
• BACKSPACE: Switch to the parent folder
• SHIFT+click+Close button: For folders, close the current folder plus all parent folders


Windows Explorer tree control
• Numeric Keypad *: Expands everything under the current selection
• Numeric Keypad +: Expands the current selection
• Numeric Keypad -: Collapses the current selection.
• RIGHT ARROW: Expands the current selection if it is not expanded, otherwise goes to the first child
• LEFT ARROW: Collapses the current selection if it is expanded, otherwise goes to the parent


Properties control
• CTRL+TAB/CTRL+SHIFT+TAB: Move through the property tabs


Accessibility shortcuts
• Press SHIFT five times: Toggles StickyKeys on and off
• Press down and hold the right SHIFT key for eight seconds: Toggles FilterKeys on and off
• Press down and hold the NUM LOCK key for five seconds: Toggles ToggleKeys on and off
• Left ALT+left SHIFT+NUM LOCK: Toggles MouseKeys on and off
• Left ALT+left SHIFT+PRINT SCREEN: Toggles high contrast on and off



Microsoft Natural Keyboard keys
• Windows Logo: Start menu
• Windows Logo+R: Run dialog box
• Windows Logo+M: Minimize all
• SHIFT+Windows Logo+M: Undo minimize all
• Windows Logo+F1: Help
• Windows Logo+E: Windows Explorer
• Windows Logo+F: Find files or folders
• Windows Logo+D: Minimizes all open windows and displays the desktop
• CTRL+Windows Logo+F: Find computer
• CTRL+Windows Logo+TAB: Moves focus from Start, to the Quick Launch toolbar, to the system tray (use RIGHT ARROW or LEFT ARROW to move focus to items on the Quick Launch toolbar and the system tray)
• Windows Logo+TAB: Cycle through taskbar buttons
• Windows Logo+Break: System Properties dialog box
• Application key: Displays a shortcut menu for the selected item

Microsoft Natural Keyboard with IntelliType software installed
• Windows Logo+L: Log off Windows
• Windows Logo+P: Starts Print Manager
• Windows Logo+C: Opens Control Panel
• Windows Logo+V: Starts Clipboard
• Windows Logo+K: Opens Keyboard Properties dialog box
• Windows Logo+I: Opens Mouse Properties dialog box
• Windows Logo+A: Starts Accessibility Options (if installed)
• Windows Logo+SPACEBAR: Displays the list of Microsoft IntelliType shortcut keys
• Windows Logo+S: Toggles CAPS LOCK on and off


Dialog box keyboard commands
• TAB: Move to the next control in the dialog box
• SHIFT+TAB: Move to the previous control in the dialog box
• SPACEBAR: If the current control is a button, this clicks the button. If the current control is a check box, this toggles the check box. If the current control is an option, this selects the option.
• ENTER: Equivalent to clicking the selected button (the button with the outline)
• ESC: Equivalent to clicking the Cancel button
• ALT+underlined letter in dialog box item: Move to the corresponding item

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PC Over Clocking Part 5. Step by Step

1.Turn off the computer, remove the case from the system unit, and open the manual supplied with your motherboard.
2.Make sure that you follow all safety rules, which need to be observed when performing any tasks with the case open. There is a danger of static electricity. Therefore, it is wise to touch the case before you begin. Better yet, keep one hand on the case at all times while working. Try not to allow any foreign items, especially metallic ones, to touch the adapters. If anything does get inside, remove it immediately. Be sure of everything you are doing, but be careful and accurate.
3.Carefully read all of the basic characteristics of the processor from what is labeled on it. It makes sense to record this data.
4.Consult your motherboard manual to find out which jumpers control the multiplier, the bus frequency and the core voltage supplied to the processor.
5.Check to see if the jumpers are set according to the motherboard manual. Figure out the exact values of the multiplier, the host bus speed and the core voltage. Record this information as well.
6.Now consider how you are going to intensify the cooling of your processor. This is extremely important.
7.Consider how you are going to overclock the processor, what settings you are going to change, and by how much, etc.
8.Follow the instructions provided in the documentation to change the bus speed and/or the multiplier.
9.Check to see if all the jumpers are set correctly according to the instructions provided in the manual.
10.Turn the computer on.
11.If POST completes successfully and you see the boot-up screen with the BIOS information, skip steps 12 and 13, and go on to step 14.
12.If the computer doesn't boot, your CPU doesn't seem to be able to be overclocked to the speed that you are trying to set. Turn it off and try to increase the voltage supplied to the processor (if possible). Before tweaking the voltage, consult your motherboard manual.
13.Turn the computer on. If BIOS doesn't boot, you should abandon attempts to overclock your CPU to the frequency you are trying to set. Try more conservative settings for the multiplier and host bus frequency.
14.Go to BIOS Setup and, if necessary, change the appropriate settings.
15.Reboot the computer and allow the operating system to complete the boot process. If your operating system starts successfully, start testing your system's reliability at the increased frequency. It is recommended that you use various tests, such as WinStone, WinBench, BAPCo Suite, and any other tests available to you. The more tests you run the better.
16.If the system doesn't crash and everything runs normally, you have successfully overclocked your system.
17.If your system crashes, return to 12-16 steps.
18.General recommendations: Don't raise the voltage supplied to the processor except for the cases when it is absolutely necessary, since this increases CPU temperature. Cooling is the most important thing, one that you should never forget about, especially when overclocking.
19.To conclude this chapter, it should be mentioned that Windows 9x may become unstable after overclocking, while DOS and Windows 3.x may remain reliable. This is due to the more stringent hardware requirements imposed by Windows 9x. Thus, Windows 9x can itself be considered as a kind of test. If the computer doesn't pass this test, this means the system is unstable.

PC Over Clocking Part 4. Cache Memory

The parameters that control the work of the cache memory are generally found in the BIOS Setup menu under BIOS Features Setup, the items in which are explained in more detail below. Usually you can modify the values using the <+> and <−> or the and keys. Enabled/Disabled will enable or disable the option.
CPU Internal Cache/CPU External Cache
Internal/external CPU cache. This parameter allows the external/internal processor cache to work (or disables it). Disabling CPU Internal Cache/CPU External Cache will significantly slow down the whole system. However, this may be necessary if you are using any legacy hardware or software.
CPU L 1 Cache /CPU L 2 Cache
The processor cache of the first/second level. This parameter enables or disables usage of the first/second level CPU cache for the following processors: Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, Celeron, AMD-K6-III, and so on. Disabling this option will slow down your system significantly. However, this may be necessary if you are using legacy adapters or legacy software.
CPU L 2 Cache ECC Checking
Uses ECC for the 2nd level cache memory. This parameter enables or disables the level 2 cache memory ECC for those processors built on the architecture using it.
Video Subsystem and Hard Drive
The parameters that control the functioning of the video subsystem, the hard drive, and the system BIOS are usually located in the BIOS Setup menu under BIOS Features Setup and Chipset Features Setup, whose items are described below. Usually you can modify the values using the <+> and < > or the and keys. Enabled/Disabled will enable or disable the option.
Video BIOS Shadow
A "shadow" copy of the video ROM.
This parameter enables or disables creation of a „shadow” copy of the video BIOS in the RAM. When this setting is enabled, the contents of video BIOS will be copied into the RAM, and RAM will actually be used when formally accessing video BIOS. This allows a gain in performance, because working with RAM is obviously much faster than working with RAM.
Video BIOS Cacheable
This parameter enables or disables caching the video BIOS. Caching increases the speed of the video output.
System BIOS Shadow
This parameter enables or disables creation of a copy of the System BIOS in the RAM. When enabled, a copy of the system BIOS will be created in RAM, and all actual work will be done using this copy (while formally working with the system BIOS). The performance increase is due to the fact that RAM access is much faster than ROM access.
System BIOS cacheable
This parameter enables or disables caching the system BIOS. Caching increases the speed at which the system BIOS commands are executed.
AGB Aperture Size (MB)
This parameter specifies the size of RAM allocated to AGP video adapters. The parameter ranges from 4 to 256 MB. Memory is allocated dynamically, within the limits set by the values specified. The remaining part of the allocated memory can be used by the operating system.
AGP/CLK
This parameter sets the AGP clock frequency, which depends on the divider value and operative frequence of the CPU bus (FSB). When setting this parameter, you'll have two options: 1 (1/1, i.e., AGP clock frequency is the same as CPU clock) or 2/3 (i. e., AGP is at 2/3 of the CPU external clock).
IDE HDD Block Mode
Enabling this option will set a block data transfer mode for the hard drive, which will transfer data in blocks. This increases the speed of data exchange and, accordingly, boosts the performance of the disk subsystem.

PC Over Clocking Part 3. Managing RAM

Choosing the parameters, you can almost always assume that the less delay, the better. At the same time, settings that are too low may lead to the unreliable operation of the memory, and thus make the whole system unstable. In such a case, simply load the default settings (BIOS Setup Defaults menu) and the system will return to its original state. By changing the parameters associated with memory time delays in BIOS Setup, it is impossible to harm the computer. If the system is not working correctly, or if it completely refuses to work, you can simply return to the original settings.
A more detailed explanation of each of the parameters can be found in the manual for the motherboard, or in the appropriate technical literature. Here, you'll find a few examples of how to adjust them with the aim of increasing the RAM operating frequency.
Most frequently, all of the necessary parameters that control the work of the RAM are found in the BIOS Setup menu called Advanced Chipset Setup. The items on this menu are listed below. You can usually change the values using <+> and <−> or and keys. Enabled/Disabled refers to enabling or disabling the corresponding option.
Auto Configuration
All parameters will be set automatically.
In order to be able to set the parameters manually, it is recommended that you disable this option. If this option is enabled, most parameters will be set automatically.
DRAM Read Timing
The number of cycles while accessing the memory.
This parameter can take on the values x111, x222, x333, and x444. The less the number of cycles, the better. To achieve maximum performance, you must assign this parameter the lowest possible value. However, make sure that the system is stable at the modified settings. The possible (and recommended) values are: EDO RAM — x222 and x333, FPM RAM — x333 and x444, SDRAM — x111 and x222.
DRAM Write Timing
It is recommended that you change this parameter in a way similar to the one used to modify the previous one.
RAS to CAS Delay
Try to set the lowest possible value for this parameter. Notice, however, that not every RAM module will be able to work with the lowest setting. Because of this, it is recommended to test your system after changing this setting.
DRAM Leadoff Timing
The value of this parameter depends not only on the type of the memory installed in your system, but also on the chipset at the motherboard. For read operations, Intel Triton FX chipset normally does not allow you to set DRAM timing cycles less than 7-x-x-x, while TX or HX chipsets require that this value be no less than 5-x-x-x. For write operations, these parameters should be set to the values no less than 5-x-x-x (FX) and 4-x-x-x (TX and HX).
At a value of 5, the system will be able to work if using 50 nsec EDO RAM or 10 nsec SDRAM. As always, it's worth trying to set the lowest possible value.
Turbo Lead Leadoff
Turbo Read Pipelining
Speculative Lead Off
You should try to enable these parameters, and then test the system's usability and performance. Certain types of RAM can produce a significant growth in performance if these parameters are turned on.

PC Over Clocking Part 2. Bios Set Up

ROM BIOS from, say, Award, has an embedded setup program, which allows you to change the basic configuration of the system. This information is permanently stored in CMOS RAM, so its contents will not be lost after turning the PC off. You can enter the Setup mode by pressing a certain key or combination of keys when you restart or reboot the computer. Usually the key is used for this purpose.
The system configuration is modified by setting the values of the appropriate parameters in BIOS Setup and then saving them in CMOS RAM. This procedure is known as BIOS Setup.
Most often, the overall performance of the entire computer system depends on the BIOS settings. In many cases, changing parameters in BIOS Setup provides a real possibility of significant improvement of the computer performance. This is particularly true for the parameters that deal with memory.
Generally, default settings ensure the stable operation of the entire system. However, these settings do not guarantee maximum performance. To achieve this, you'll need to try to select settings at which the computer will function at maximum performance and at the same time remain stable. In order to attain maximum performance by means of BIOS Setup, it is necessary to experiment with the settings that define time delays when accessing RAM (BIOS Memory Timing menu), internal, and/or external cache memory. It's also advisable to give some attention to the parameters that determine the modes of the video adapter and hard drive.

PC Over Clocking Part 1.

Traditionally, the performance of a computer is usually estimated by its processor. It is generally accepted that it is exactly this unquestionably important element that determines the basic functional capabilities, class, price, and prestige of a modern PC. The 8086, 8088, 286, 386, 486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium MMX, Pentium II, Celeron, and Pentium III processors are the basic landmarks that separate one generation of computers from another. Processors from AMD, VIA (Cyrix), IBM, and certain other manufacturers also have a huge influence on the development of the computer industry. Experienced users, however, are aware of the fact that other PC components are of no less importance and cannot be neglected. These components include the hard drives, the motherboard and its chipset, the 2D/3D video adapter, monitor, the CD-ROM and DVD-ROM drives, the sound card, the high-performance network adapter for computers participating in a local area network (LAN), and the high-speed modem for computers connected to the Internet. This list could go on and on. Its size depends on the tasks you are going to be solving using the PC, which will determine the computer's requirements for functioning and its technical characteristics. At the same time, of course, performance remains one of the most important parameters.
Both the performance and the functional capabilities of the PC depend to a great extent on the parameters of its individual components, their compatibility, and their coordination. Selecting a computer according to the technical specification is not sufficient. If you really want to get the most out of your PC, you'll need to optimize its setup and configuration. Like any complex device, a modern computer requires proper maintenance and servicing. If these requirements are neglected, your modern, powerful, and expensive computer will be inferior to its optimally tuned predecessors, which by the way are much less expensive.
You should optimize your PC whenever you change the tasks it's intended to perform, and also after upgrading its hardware or software configuration. By specifying appropriate settings and running special utilities, it is possible to compensate (to a certain extent) for the natural degradation of electronic components due to their prolonged usage. To achieve a high level of performance, it is recommended that you update device drivers and BIOS code from time to time. Maintenance procedures, such as defragmentation and scanning the hard drive(s) for errors should be performed on a regular basis. If you neglect these operations, then, in a best-case scenario, this may slow down your system. In a worst-case scenario, this may result in the loss of data. You must also periodically check the latest news related to bug fixes, updates, and service packs released for operating systems and office programs. Compressing the hard drive using programs like DriveSpace or Compression Agent may significantly increase the drive space available to the user. What's more, in certain situations it might even speed up data access, and therefore increase the operating speed of most programs.
However, it's worth noting that even a very carefully optimized and tuned PC, which undergoes maintenance procedures on a regular basis, cannot always meet the ever-growing requirements. Sooner or later, every user will run into the problem of insufficient performance. When standard performance reserves have been completely used up due to the comprehensive optimization, you will have to take more radical steps. Some users solve the problem by buying a new computer, while others upgrade the existing one. Both solutions will cost money, often a very considerable sum. Notice that users often need to replace or upgrade even relatively new computers that are in good operating condition, bought only a year or two ago (or even less)!
You should, however, note that besides hardware and software optimization and upgrade, there is another method of prolonging the life cycle of obsolete computer equipment that is still in good operating condition. This method often gives new life to those computers that already cannot be called modern. This method is known as overclocking. The idea of this method is that certain elements and components of the computer can be forced to run at speeds faster than the ones they were rated to operate at. Generally, this increases the operating frequency of the overclocked equipment, thus increasing overall system performance. But, you should realize that this decreases system reliability. Also, you must be ready to accept the fact that overclocking shortens the operating life of the equipment. However, in many cases this is justifiable and does not represent much of a problem.
Indeed, due to the constant improvement of computer technology, the period of time which hardware components can be expediently used is constantly shrinking. As soon as modern, better-quality, and higher-performance components appear on the market, it becomes economically unreasonable to keep using their aged prototypes. And this happens in spite of advanced production technology, increased reliability, and prolonged trouble-free service life of the PC hardware. At present, the operating life of processors, video adapters, and hard drives is usually no more than 2–3 years. This is an average value. However, many users try to replace these generally serviceable components with newer and higher-performance ones even before it becomes really necessary. At the same time, modern hardware components have such a high reliability level that they are guaranteed to operate for more than 10 years. Nonetheless, newer, more advanced, and higher-performance devices generally appear on the market every few months. For this reason, you can allow a little bit of loss of reliability and reserve (for example, from 10 to 5 years), since the period that you'll actually be able to use these elements is relatively short and you really don't need your hardware to last for such a long time. There is always a small chance of system crashes and hang-ups even in a correctly overclocked computer. However, if overclocking was done correctly, a system crash is a rare event, and even if it happens, the results in most cases are not fatal. Of course, you shouldn't use overclocking modes for server components, or, for example, in systems that control mission-critical and potentially dangerous operations (like nuclear power plants, missile launching stations, etc.) or in situations where a life is at stake (operating rooms, etc.). Errors in such systems are not so harmless or allowable.
It should be emphasized that recently, overclocking has become popular even among those who have a completely new PC. Such users, with the aim of further increasing the performance of their system, often ask technical specialists to have overclocking modes set for their processors as soon as they purchase an absolutely new PC. More experienced users often perform the operation themselves at home, choosing the optimal mode while strictly controlling and thoroughly testing hardware components at every step of the overclocking procedure.
The user's natural desire to constantly improve the architecture of his or her computer is not the only reason that overclocking is now so popular. Rather, the main idea of overclocking is usually to save money. Indeed, this procedure, which is by the way applicable not only to processors, allows you to attain a relatively high performance for a relatively low price. The CPU performance gain can reach 20–30%. If you decide to use more extreme and therefore riskier modes, you can gain up to 50%, and possibly more. You can apply similar methods to increase the performance of other components, such as the RAM, the video adapter, and even the hard drive. Doing this immediately places the computer into a higher category. Often overclocked components that were at a lower performance level to start with can now compete with their more powerful and more expensive successors. What's also important is that this is done without spending practically any money. The money you save on the processor alone can be in the hundreds of dollars. And, the insignificant decrease of reliability and stability that comes along with overclocking can be minimized by taking a few measures and following certain recommendations.
Despite the main reason of overclocking computer components obviously is saving money, you really shouldn't look at this method of increasing your PC's performance from that angle alone. Relatively often, even the newest hardware components whose performance is already very high are used in overclocking modes as well. Doing this allows us to take advantage of the latent capabilities of PC components. Overclocking such components increases their performance and improves functional capabilities even further. So, regardless of the fact that the frequency of 500 MHz for processors with the traditional architecture was achieved relatively recently, and has already been, of course, surpassed, certain overclocking enthusiasts have been able to reach heights in the area of 1000 MHz with such processors. It's often the case that such actions are accompanied by corresponding measures that will also increase the performance of the other subsystems included in a modern computer.
The popularization of experience in overclocking elements affects the financial interests of the hardware manufacturers. They, for understandable reasons, do not want to lose any part of their profits. Besides, overclocking methods are also often used by the so-called remarkers, who intentionally change the marking on computer elements — processors or memory modules for example — and pass them off as products of a higher performance, and thus more expensive than they actually are. Some companies, generally smaller ones, go even further. They release devices — for instance video adapters, motherboards, or even entire computers — whose elements have already been overclocked, and, obviously, keep this a secret from the potential customer.
Taking into consideration the opportunity for forgery and in order to defend their commercial interests, most well known manufacturers have included various improvements in their products that inhibit fabrication of fake components and limit the performance-increasing possibilities that come from using overclocking modes.
Nonetheless, note that despite all the desperate efforts of certain processor manufacturers, who do their best to prevent their products from being overclocked, the popularity of overclocking is growing at a rapid rate. Overclocking is further promoted by the release of certain motherboards and chipsets, and even some software, intended to simplify experiments with overclocking. You can easily find a wide range of products on the computer market that are intended for cooling computer components. All this makes setting the appropriate modes, setting the parameters, and testing much simpler.
Not only enthusiastic individuals but also many serious companies have dedicated their efforts to the investigation of overclocking modes and the development of recommendations for their use. Sometimes, such investigations are performed even with support provided by hardware manufacturers. An example of cooperation in this field is the collaboration between Kryotech and AMD. As a result of their investigations, an AMD processor under experimental conditions of extreme overclocking was able to reach 1 GHz long before the release of processors rated to run at such a frequency.
This rather high interest that a number of computer companies seem to be taking in overclocking is relatively easily explained. These types of studies aid in improving the technology, enhancing the architecture, and increasing the performance of hardware components. Furthermore, these investigations serve as a source of statistics on errors and faults, which then allows the manufacturers to develop efficient and reliable hardware and software. After all, the ability of hardware components to retain stability and reliability in overclocking modes serves as an excellent promotion for their respective manufacturers. Certain manufacturers welcome this research, because they use the experience and technology gained from the leading firms that investigate overclocking problems in order to release high-performance hardware. Compaq, for example, offers a platform for high-performance servers based on the technology developed by Kryotech, which provided extreme cooling for AMD Athlon processors overclocked to frequencies 1.5–2 times higher than normal.
As the community of overclocking enthusiasts expands, the number of specialized Web sites related to overclocking problems grows accordingly. These sites are intended to make overclocking even more popular. Generally, materials published there discuss various aspects of the problems that may arise, and give corresponding recommendations.
The materials presented in this book provide an attempt to develop a systematic approach to the overclocking problem and to formulate general and specific recommendations on setting the overclocking parameters for the most important hardware components.

How to Troubleshoot PC memory problem

Computer memory-related issues are not always obvious. If you're lucky, your Windows system will present you with an error code that clearly identifies a faulty computer memory module. In most cases, however, the symptoms of faulty computer memory are cryptic and hard to identify.
The following errors are the most common symptoms of faulty (or failing) computer memory modules:
Computer memory errors. These include system computer memory errors, or "blue screen" system crashes that reference memory read/write, parity, interrupt, address, page faults, general protection faults or mismatch errors. In some cases, the system may simply refuse to recognize the installed memory.
Computer memory boot failures. Because the BIOS checks the computer memory every time the system boots, memory failures often result in an unbootable system that may present with a blank screen and a system beep.
Data corruption. Since almost all of the data running on a computer passes through the system's computer memory, data corruption is one indicator of a failing computer memory module. Common symptoms include lost, missing or scrambled data; frequent crashes; spontaneous reboots; registry errors; missing system files; and other intermittent or bizarre behavior

How to troubleshoot computer memory problems

Effective troubleshooting of any computer memory problem boils down to using a methodical approach that rules out common issues as you progress. It's tempting to skip steps, but taking any shortcuts will just lengthen the troubleshooting process if your hunches are wrong. Following all these basic steps can help avoid a more serious computer memory problem.
Back up your system. If your system is bootable but unstable, back up your data as soon as possible. Computer memory problems can result in data corruption, and you don't want to risk losing your data while you're troubleshooting the issue.
Check your hardware and system configuration. If you have recently installed computer memory, make sure the new memory modules are compatible with your system board and that you installed them in the correct slots. Check part numbers and confirm your system components match your documentation. Then check your motherboard and BIOS documentation to see if you need to enable any special settings before upgrading memory.
Reinstall the computer memory modules. Remove the memory modules from the system board, examine them for damage, examine the system board for damage and reinsert them. While the modules are removed, use a soft cloth to clean the contacts of the module using a cleaner called "FluxOff" or a similar product. Use compressed air or a PC vacuum to remove dust from the memory socket. After reinserting the modules, make sure they are the same height to ensure correct placement.
Swap or replace the computer memory modules. Swapping the position of the memory modules on the system board, reinstalling identical computer memory modules or installing modules in another identical system can be useful in determining if the issue is a bad module or socket.
Update the system BIOS. Don't assume your BIOS is functioning properly if you're having issues related to system memory. Upgrading your system BIOS will refresh the system information, may resolve known compatibility issues or even provide more in-depth troubleshooting information.
Test the memory modules. There are a number of software and hardware-based memory testing tools available. Some of my favorite software-based programs are Memtest86, GoldMemory and Microsoft's Windows Memory Diagnostic tool. Hardware-based testing solutions such as RAMCHECK, from Innovations Inc., are more comprehensive, but are also more expensive. Testing the modules will help you rule out if the source of your problems is really a faulty memory module or if there are other issues.
Check online support sites for known issues. If you are receiving error codes from the system BIOS, an application or the operating system, and you haven't already checked with an appropriate support center, you should check now. Operating system bugs and poorly written software can lead to computer memory leaks, page faults, and other errors. Major bugs and issues should be easy to locate on support Web sites or search engines by typing in the specific error codes. In many cases, patches are available from either the software vendor or Microsoft.
Run updated antivirus software. This is a long shot, but a few malicious programs masquerade as system memory errors or cause computer memory issues themselves. Running an updated antivirus sweep may identify these programs and resolve the issue.
Look for additional causes: If you've completed the previous troubleshooting steps, you have effectively ruled out faulty computer memory as the root cause of your system errors. Faulty motherboards, failing power supplies, deteriorating hard drives and environmental issues can cause similar symptoms and should be investigated as alternate sources for system crashes, data loss and instabilities.

How to prevent computer memory problems

An ounce of prevention is truly worth about 10 hours of troubleshooting time, so take don't forget to take the time to these steps -- doing so can help prevent computer memory problems.
Read the manual first. Before installing or upgrading system memory, take a minute and make sure you have the correct type of computer memory for your system and that there aren't any additional configuration steps required.
Buy computer memory only from reputable sources. Everybody likes a bargain, but buying cheap, no-brand modules from an auction site or at a computer show isn't worth the cost savings. I typically buy memory directly from a manufacturer such as Crucial Technology or Kingston Technology Company Inc.
Don't mix and match computer memory modules. It's common sense to pair memory modules to identical computer memory modules, but you should also consider buying your modules from the same manufacturer. Don't pair modules from two different manufacturers where small engineering, design or manufacturing variances can cause compatibility issues.
Take care of spare computer memory modules. We often take computer hardware for granted, and I have yet to work in a corporate environment that didn't have a box or desk drawer filled with a loose assortment of memory modules from a variety of systems. If you plan to reuse system memory, make sure you place it in a protective antistatic sleeve and label it with the memory type and date. Always test older memory modules before installing them into a new system.
Control your system environment. Dust, humidity and extreme heat can limit the life of your system by literally cooking your system components or causing parts to warp and corrode. Power fluctuations and surges can also damage your systems.

The basic tips for computer troubleshooting and repair.

There are some basic computer problem troubleshooting techniques you can perform yourself before bringing your computer system to your trusted computer technician or calling your local tech support hot line. Before starting out it is important to know basic information about your computer system. You need to know whether it is a Mac or a PC. You need to know who the manufacturer is, whether you have a white box (which is a clone system), a dell, an IBM, etc. You should also know what kind of a processor your computer have, whether it is a x86 or x64, and what operating system is running on your computer, such as Microsoft Windows Operating System, or Open Source Operating system such as Linux or FreeBSD.
You need to know how much memory module (RAM) you have and how large a hard drive installed in the computer. All of this information should either be written somewhere, or should be in your manufacturer’s manual. Equipped with this information you are then ready to embark on a journey to your troubleshooting steps.
There are things to Keep in mind when troubleshooting your computer system. You should always remember what you were doing before the error occurred. If possible, write down the error messages as a references for the technical department if necessary. Were you working on a document on your hard drive, or on the network?Ok now that we have that settled lets try a few things. Reboot (turn the machine off and then on again) - Believe it or not but this resolves most computer problems. Run a Virus check, but first run a virus update. You can usually get your virus updated online Try to decide on the area of the problem.
Determine if it’s a network problem if you are having trouble with Internet Connection, a hardware problem, or a software problem. You can determine if it’s a network problem very easily by checking to see if the computer is on the network. Network problems are the usual culprits for Internet problems. If your computer doesn’t start up, then you should look behind it and make sure that all the cables are plugged firmly into the computer. Make sure that the computer is plugged into the outlet (sometimes the cleaning crew messes this stuff up) Check to see if you get any lights on the computer. If the computer lights turn on, but the computer won’t start and you have no sound, then you probably need to replace the power supply.
You should call a repair technician to have it replaced. If your computer hang when using the operating system. Try rebooting your system and as it reboots press F8 to see if it will go into safe mode, from there uninstall the application you installed that caused the problem, or reboot. If none of the above tips work at least you are better informed and can give tech support the information they need to help you. The most important thing is to remain calm and to pay attention to what the computer is doing, so you can help the technician help you in your computer problem troubleshooting.
The more information you can give the computer technician, the more easier for the computer technician to troubleshoot your computer.

Easy Steps to speed up Your computer

10 Easy Steps to Speed Up Your Computer
Without Upgrading

By Jim Shutes
LapeerTechGroup.com


It seems that the longer you own your computer, the slower it gets! A lot of people will keep their computer until it gets so slow that they feel they need a newer, faster model. Some feel like the reason it is getting slower is because it is getting older, when that is just not the case. Your computer should run just as fast as the day you brought it home – if you follow these 10 Easy Steps to Speed Up Your Computer.
Empty the Temp directory regularly. Every time you launch a program, it creates a temporary file, until you either save or close the file. The reason it does this is in case your system crashes or gets turned off (before saving the file), it will be possible to recover the unsaved file you were working on. This is a good idea, but rarely works. Every time your system crashes, locks up, or gets turned off while you have open files, these temp files get created and just sit there in the Temp directory. Then, every time you launch a program, it looks through all of the temp files (to see if one needs to be recovered) and slows the open process, and in some rare cases, even locks up when trying to launch. In any event, the launch process is slowed.


Other ways of getting unneeded temp files is by installing programs. Most programs that get installed extract temp files (needed during the installation) to the temp directory, but a lot of times don’t get deleted when the installation is complete.Windows also uses the temp directory for its temp files, for recovery purposes and ongoing use.After a short while, the temp directory fills up with hundreds (and I have even seen thousands) of temp files that always get scanned over when Windows starts up and when programs launch. This slows everything down immensely.Rule of thumb for Temp Files: If you don’t have any programs open (and nothing minimized in the bar below), then you shouldn’t have ANY temp files in your temp directory. If you do, delete them.To delete Temp files, make sure NO programs are open, and…
In Windows 95, 98 or Me, go to C:\Windows\Temp and delete everything inside the Temp folder.
In Windows 2000 or XP, it is a little trickier. First, make sure that you can see hidden folders. Double-click My Computer. Click on the Tools pull-down menu, and then on Folder Options. Click on the View tab. Scroll down and click on Show Hidden Files and Folders. Click Ok. Now you can go to the C:\Documents and Settings\Administrator\Local Settings\Temp folder. Delete everything here. Also, look in the C:\Windows(or Winnt)\Temp or Tmp folders. Delete everything here, as well. Note: this assumes that your logon ID is Administrator. If the main account is not Administrator, or if there are more than one account, substitute “Administrator" for the account names, and delete the temp files from all of the C:\Documents and Settings\(account name)\Local Settings\Temp folders.
Empty the Temporary Internet Files regularly. This is similar to the Temp directory, but for images and cookies while browsing websites. Every time you go to a website, your browser will look through your list of temporary Internet files, to see if you have all of the images needed to view your requested web page. If it is a very long list, it will delay your view time. However, if you have a dial-up, this is the lesser of two evils. If you already have the needed images, it is quicker (for a dial-up) to look through your temporary Internet files, than to download new images every time you visit a website.On the other hand, if you have a broadband Internet connection (highspeed CableModem, DSL, Wireless, etc.), and you want a little more snap in your surfing, then you should delete your Temporary Internet Files on a regular basis, and choose to Check for Newer Images on Every Visit to a web page.To empty Temporary Internet Files, go to your Control Panel, by click on the Start\Settings\Control Panel (or in Windows XP, just Start\Control Panel) and double-click the Internet Options icon. Choose to Delete Cookies, and to Delete Files. This will clear all of your Temporary Internet Files.To have Internet Explorer always check for new images and content on every visit to a web page, to the right of the Delete Files button, is the Settings button. Click this button and choose Every Visit to the Web Page. This option never has Internet Explorer look through your Temporary Internet Files to see if you already have the images needed. This way, Internet Explorer will just automatically download every image, every time, without looking through a list. If you have a good Internet connection, this is the better way to go. Don’t forget to delete your Temporary Internet Files every once in a while (see above).
Check your hard disks for problems. There are two different types of disk checks: one is a file check, which checks the state of your operating system, checks all of your files, your file structure, and other software checks. If there are software problems (such as a corrupt FAT (file allocation table), etc., this check will attempt to fix it. The other is a physical hardware disk check. This checks the surface of your hard disks, to see if there are bad sectors (sections) of your hard drive, to see if your drive is physically experiencing problems. This disk check will attempt to repair the bad sectors, but if it can’t, it will mark the sector as bad and attempt to move the file(s) or file “pieces" to a good sector(s) of the disk. By marking the sector as bad, it knows not to write any future files to this section of the hard drive.To run a disk check (or scan disk), here are the steps:
For Windows 95, 98, or Me, double-click My Computer. Right-click the C-drive and click on Properties. Click on the Tools tab and choose to check the computer for problems. If you choose to do a Thorough Scan, this will do the hardware check for physical disk damage or sector damage. Otherwise, the Standard Scan does the software file check. In either case, you can choose to have the scan automatically fix any errors it finds. The Thorough Scan does take quite a bit longer. You may want to let this run over night. Only do the Thorough Scan when you think there may be a problem with your drive itself, or if you haven’t run it in a few months, otherwise, run the Standard Scan once a week or so.
For Windows 2000 and XP, double-click My Computer. Right-click the C-drive and click Properties. Click on the Tools tab and choose to check the computer for problems. Click on Check Now. You will then have two check boxes. The top option is for the file check, and the second option is for the hardware (physical disk) check. Check either one, or both. At least check the top one. Again, if you think you may be having problems with the hard disk itself, then check the second one, as well. And just like the Windows 98 Thorough Scan, this will take quite a bit longer to run, so let it run over night. One thing, though: For Windows 2000 and XP, you won’t be able to run the check right then. After clicking the Start button (once the check boxes are checked), you will need to reboot to run the disk check. It will ask you if you want the system to run the CHKDSK on reboot. Choose Yes and reboot. Just before getting back into Windows, the system will do its CHKDSK, and depending on which options you chose, will take either a few minutes, and sometimes up to an hour or so, to run. Let it run.
An even more thorough disk check (and tune-up), would be to use a 3rd party utility (a stand-alone program outside of Windows) to check everything for you, automatically. One of my favorites is TuneUp Utilities 2004. It costs $39.99, but they do offer a FREE download trial of 15 days, to check it out to see if it speeds up your computer and/or fixes any problems. This program does a really good job of not only checking your computer’s file structure, master boot record, file allocation table, and files, but also an extremely good job of detecting and fixing bad sectors of your physical disk drives. And not only that, it also tunes up your system for increased speed, checks and cleans your registry, adjusts memory for you, tweaks your Internet settings for faster downloads and browsing (whether you use a dial-up or broadband), and streamlines your operating system for peak performance. I highly recommend this program. If you don’t have it, you can download it HERE.
If you don’t want to get the TuneUp Utilities 2004, you can do a few of the performance tweaks yourself, if you have Windows XP. By default, EVERYTHING is turned on in Windows XP. It isn’t very streamlined for performance, but rather for appearance. You can turn off a few of the unnecessary features, and Windows will still work just fine, and maybe a little faster.To do this, right-click on My Computer and click on Properties. Click on the Advanced tab. Under the Performance section, click on the Settings button. On the Visual Effects tab, you will see a list of check boxes. By default, these are all on. You really don’t need any of them. If you choose one of the radio buttons at the top, say, Adjust for Best Performance, then all of the check boxes will turn off. This will noticeably speed up your computer. You can go through the check boxes one by one, and determine which ones you can and can’t live without. The one that will make the biggest effect is the very last one in the list. This is the Themes. If you turn it off, it will free up a lot of system resources and give you quite a bit more memory to work with, but Windows XP will look more like Windows 2000. For most people, this isn’t a problem. It is all eye-candy, anyway. Your pretty green pasture picture will disappear your pretty green and blue buttons and task bar will go to a gray. If you can live with these things, then you will have much more performance. You will find that menus open up much more quickly and everything responds more immediately.
Turn off Active Desktop. Active Desktop turns your desktop into a web page, and allows you to have things like a real-time calendar, and up-to-the-minute weather or stocks. These things are really neat, but your system takes a performance hit when they are running in the background all the time. And even if you don’t use Active Desktop for anything, just having it active can cause a performance decrease. Turn it off.
In Windows 95, 98 and Me, right-click on the desktop and in the pop-up menu, choose Active Desktop. Inside that option, uncheck Active Desktop. If there is no check next to it, then it isn’t on. Don’t choose it. Instead, just click the desktop again to get out of the menu.
In Windows 2000, right-click on the desktop and in the pop-up menu, choose Active Desktop. Inside that option, uncheck Show Web Content. Again, if there is no check next to it, then it is not on. Do not check it.
In Windows XP, right-click on the desktop and in the pop-up menu, choose Properties. On the Desktop tab, choose Customize Desktop. Now, on the Web tab, make sure that there are no websites chosen here. If there aren’t any, then Active Desktop is not on. Cancel and go back to the desktop.
Install and run a good AntiVirus program (regularly) to keep out viruses and Trojan horses that can take over your system. If you have a virus(s), your system performance can be dramatically decreased. Viruses can do all kinds of nasty things to your computer. They can take over your computer, erase your hard drive, use your computer as a server, give you a bunch of illegal music or programs and tell all of their friends to download it all from you – leaving you holding the bag and supplying the computer space and bandwidth for their hobby. So, protect yourself with a good AntiVirus program. One of my favorites is AVG. It is not only a really good AntiVirus program, but it is also FREE! If you don’t have any AntiVirus software on your computer, get AVG AntiVirus NOW by downloading HERE. If you already have an AntiVirus program, and you want to use AVG instead, do NOT install AVG. First, uninstall your current AntiVirus program, reboot and install AVG. You do NOT want to have two AntiVirus programs installed at the same time. They will work against each other and can cause problems.
Get rid of Spyware. A lot of computer users have Spyware and don’t even know they have it, much less how to get rid of it. If your computer has been taking you to websites that you don’t want to go to, or if you get pop-ups when you aren’t even on the Internet, or if your computer has been running extremely slowly lately, for no reason, you probably have Spyware.On all of the computers that I setup, I install two different AntiSpyware programs: AdAware SE and SpyBot. These two programs are highly recommended by TechTV (G4) and other computer authorities (including my own research on Spyware) and work very well together. They compliment each other and catch Spyware that the other misses, but together, do a very good job.SpyBot is not only a good program for getting rid of Spyware, but also as a preventative Spyware-catcher. It sits there and looks for known Spyware coming into your system, as well as suspicious-looking content. If you use the Tea-Timer feature, it can be a little annoying, but ANY suspicious-looking program, trying to be installed on your system, is flagged and your permission is asked for it to be installed (now and always). If you don’t have this program installed on your computer, get it NOW by downloading HERE. Download all updates and run the Immunize option a couple of times (for preventative purposes). Scan with it every day if you can.AdAware SE has a little better Spyware database in it, but is not setup as a preventative AntiSpyware program. It does do a good job when you keep up on the updates and manually scan your system with AdAware. If you don’t have this program on your computer, get it NOW by downloading HERE. Download all updates and run the Smart Scan daily (if not, at least weekly).If, after downloading and installing, updating, and running both of these AntiSpyware program, you still can’t get rid of your Spyware, you may need to enlist the services of a professional. Some Spyware is so intelligent that it looks to see if AntiSpyware programs delete the Spyware part of its programming and, if it’s gone, reinserts it back in place. This can be very frustrating for the user (and in some cases, even for the professional). There are stronger measures that can be taken to get rid of the Spyware, in cases like this, but can be very devastating to the user’s computer, if not handled perfectly. At this point, leave it to the professional. Call a local computer repair company and have them come out to your home or business and get rid of the Spyware for you.In some cases, when the Spyware has become too entwined into your system, even a computer repair technician can’t get rid of the Spyware. At this point, it is better to just backup only what you need and have the operating system reinstalled. Believe me, when your computer gets to this point, you don’t want to just put a “band-aid" on it. Just start from scratch with a clean system. It’s the best way to go.
Streamline MSCONFIG. One thing that really causes a HUGE performance decrease is to have unnecessary programs running in the background. Some of these programs can be seen in your System Tray (located next to the clock, in the lower-right corner of your screen). These are tiny programs that are robbing you of memory and processing power. Some of them you need, while most you don’t. Some of the programs you DON’T need are printer icons, CD burning icons, shortcuts to programs (such as video settings), AOL, any Instant Messaging Programs, etc. Just because these programs aren’t always running, doesn’t mean that you still can’t print, burn CDs or Instant Message. They can be run when you need them, from a shortcut.You can use a utility, called MSCONFIG, to turn OFF unnecessary Start Up items.
In Windows 98, Me, and XP, click on Start\Run and type msconfig. Click on the Startup tab. This is a list of everything that is running in the background, some of which show up in the System Tray. Now, be careful, some of these you do need. Some items to keep are Ctfmon.exe (XP), Scan Registry (Win98, Me), Task Monitor (Win98, Me), System Tray (Win98, Me), LoadPowerProfile (Win98, Me), Rundll.32, any AntiVirus programs (such as McAfee, Norton, or AVG). Others, you can uncheck, such as NeroCheck, ypager, qttask, AOL, and any other Instant Messaging programs, or printing programs. Remember, if something doesn’t work, because you turned it off, it can always be turned back on. You just have to reboot every time you make a change here. But, as you uncheck the unnecessary programs that run in the background, you will see that Windows loads much faster, that there are less icons in the System Tray, and that your system is much more “snappy" and quick to respond.
In Windows 2000, MSCONFIG wasn’t supplied. You actually have to download and run an MSCONFIG utility. Here is a website that will let you download the MSCONFIG utility. Click HERE to Download. And if you copy it into your C:\Windows(or Winnt)\System32 folder, you can access it the same way as Windows 98 or XP (by the Run command in the Start menu). Or, you can just double-click it and use it that way, too. See above for what to leave checked and unchecked.After you reboot, you will have a window that says that the configuration utility was edited. Just check not to show that in the future, a check box at the bottom.This just means that there was a change made to the MSCONFIG.
Defragment your hard drives. If you have never done this, or it has been a few months since the last time, this step is one of the most important things that will give you more performance. As you use your computer, your drives become fragmented, by creating and deleting files. Just because a file is 10mb in size, doesn’t mean that it is sitting there on the drive (all 10mb) all in one spot on the drive. It fills in from the inside of the drive, outward, as the drive finds room. So your one file can be in pieces, in several spots on the hard drive. Don’t worry, your file allocation table keeps track of where the pieces are, however, it takes longer to access a file that is in pieces (fragmented), than a file that IS all in one spot on the hard drive. This is where defragmenting comes in. When you defragment your hard drive, this process copies all of the pieces to temporary spots on the hard drive, and then fills in all of the files (in their entirety) from the inside, out, so that no files are split into pieces. This dramatically speeds up the seek time, as well as speeds up the use of your files and programs. NOTE: to efficiently defragment a hard drive, it likes to have 25% free space. It can still do the defragmentation with only 15% free space, but it takes quite a bit longer. If you can, delete any unnecessary files before degramenting your drives.
To defragment your hard drives (in any Windows operating system), double-click on My Computer. Right-click on the c-drive and click on Properties. Click on the Tools tab and choose the bottom button, to Defragment Now… Click on the appropriate drive, and then on Defragment. This can take some time. Depending on your processing power, the amount of RAM you have available, the size and speed of your drive, and a few other things, this process can take 20 minutes, or hours. It is best to let this one run over night, as well, but it is well worth it.

“My computer always boots into DOS!”

Don’t despair if your computer always boots into
DOS. The problem can be fixed — well, unless
you have an old DOS computer that doesn’t
even load Windows. But, if you have Windows
98 or Windows Me, you can easily fix the bootsinto-
DOS problem.
First, at the DOS prompt, type WIN to start
Windows. After you’re in Windows, run the
Notepad program. Choose File➪Open to display
the Open dialog box.
In the bottom of the Open dialog box, choose All
Files from the Files of Type drop-down list. Then,
in the File name box, type C:\MSDOS.SYS. Type
that command exactly as I have written it here:
C, colon, backslash, MSDOS, period, and SYS,
and then click the Open button. This command
opens a special boot file into Notepad.
In the file that appears on the screen, look for
the line that reads BootGUI=0. That line is in
the [Options] area. Change the 0 to a 1 so that it
reads BootGUI=1. That’s the command to start
Windows rather than DOS.
Choose File➪Save to save your change. Then
quit Notepad. Restart the computer, and it boots
into Windows rather than DOS.

The PC can’t recover from Sleep mode

Some computers go to sleep and never wake up. The problem was so bad
with Windows 95 that I recommended not using Sleep mode! But, since then,
things have gotten better. Still, there are times when the computer just can’t
seem to wake up from Stand By mode. Rather than thump the computer on
the head, there are a few things to try.
First, if your computer is a laptop, ensure that the battery light as well as the
“moon” light are lit. These indicate that the computer has power and that it’s
still in Sleep mode, respectively. When either button is out, the laptop’s battery
has drained and, well, there’s your problem! Plug the laptop into the
wall, and you can use it again.
Second, determine whether this is a one-time event. Turn off the computer
. When the computer comes on again, let it sit until Stand
By mode comes back on. Then, see whether the same thing happens and the
computer cannot revive itself. If so, see the section “Fixing the powermanagement
software,” a little later in this chapter.
If the problem with Stand By is a one-time thing, what happened, most likely,
is that some program kicked the bucket during the sleep process. The problem
is with that one program, not with Stand By mode itself or your computer’s
power-management hardware. (And, it’s tough to determine which program
walked the green mile, so just let it be.)
Third, when all else fails, just avoid using Stand By mode or just use Stand By
on the computer’s monitor instead. Leave the system and its hard drives on,
but after a given interval, have the computer shut off the monitor for you.

How hardware fails

Hardware can fail electronically or physically. Both ways are fairly easy to spot.
Electronic failure of hardware usually happens within one month of purchase.
If the electronics don’t work, were cheap, or were improperly assembled or
installed, or the hardware is just bad, it fails right away. That’s good because
the warranty on just about any computer covers such failures, and whatever
goes kaput is replaced free of charge.


The physical failure of hardware happens only when the hardware moves.
Fortunately, a PC has few moving parts on it: the disk drives and keyboard.
When a disk drive stops spinning, it’s dead! It needs replacement. Fortunately,
the disk drive usually has a period of intermittent errors, stops and starts, and
hits and misses before this happens, which gives you plenty of warning.
Removable disk drives may have problems with their doors or eject mechanisms,
which are obvious to spot.
Finally, the keyboard can fail. Cheap ones can go quickly, usually all at once.
The better-made keyboards may lose a key here and there, but they can be
fixed. Well, better than fixing, any keyboard can be replaced, and it’s inexpensive
to do so.
A cheap keyboard is one that utterly lacks a “clack” or “click” when you
type; the keys feel mushy. That’s because the keyboard is most likely a
touch-membrane model with spring-activated keys. If the membrane,
which is like a flimsy rubber sheet, breaks, the keyboard is finished.
Nearly all hardware is replaceable, which is often cheaper than fixing
things. For example, a CD-ROM drive can be fixed, but often it’s just
cheaper to get a newer, better CD-ROM drive as a replacement.
Avoid repair outfits that attempt to fix electronic components. Yes, even
electronic components (the motherboard, plug-in cards, and so on) can
easily and cheaply be replaced if they’re damaged. I speak from experience
here: I paid a guy close to $1,000 to solder new chips to an old laser
printer’s motherboard.